Sonnet 29 Essays (371 words) - Sonnet 29, Sonnet 1, Sonnet 20

Sonnet 29 Sonnet #29 Despite popular belief, William Shakespeare was considered a great poet before a great playwright. He accomplished writing at least 154 sonnets and other poems of love. In this paper, I will analyze one of his greatest sonnets. One of the most famous of his sonnets is number XXIX. This sonnet is one long sentence, but it still follows the usual Shakespearean pattern of three quatrains (four line sections) and a couplet. It also follows the traditional rhyme scheme for Shakespearian sonnets: ababcdcdefefgg. The first quatrain tells how the narrator is feeling. From reading these four lines, you sense his loneliness and sense of abandonment by fate, G-d, love, and other men. I believe the key line in this quatrain is line 3 (When, in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,). Here I feel Shakespeare is saying that this person who is very depressed, is crying out for help to others, but he is such an outcast that not even deaf heaven, meaning God and the angels of heaven or listening to his cries. The second quatrain starts off with a line that shows the narrator wishes to be more optimistic. He realizes that in order to achieve his goals, he must believe in himself first and stop being so depressed. The second half of the quatrain shows he is envious of other mens possessions and riches when he says, Desiring this man's art and that man's scope, With what I most enjoy contented least. Moving into the third quatrain, you see that the speaker begins to reflect on himself and starts to compare himself with his friends. You know this when Haply I think on thee, and then my state, is said. Just as you start to think the speaker is going back into a state of self-pity, you realize the speakers inspired sprits are rising like the lark at break of day. Sonnet XXIX ends with a couplet that has an uplifting message. One the speaker remembers the love of his friend and what great things he has, it makes him happy with his life. So happy he wouldnt even consider swapping his place with a king. Shakespeare Essays

Adapting Theory Into Practice †Example Admission Essay

Adapting Theory Into Practice – Example Admission Essay Free Online Research Papers Adapting Theory Into Practice Example Admission Essay Education is always an vital important problem which attracts more attention from each country. I thought to enter a university in China before, but after my throughtfully investigation, I choose this university which is far from my hometown. The Chinese fundamental education system pays more attention to the theory learning. Teachers always emphasize the concepts existed in the books, and put it in the second place that how to cultivate the ability of adapting theory into practice, which make us more familiar with the theory, but low ability in the practice. In order to let more and more students have the chances to receive higher education, many universities carried out an â€Å"Enlargement of Recruitment Policy†(guided by National government) in 1999, but the negative influence greatly increased owing to enlargement of recruitment on all levels and scales. As students who will enter university for further study, we are all worried about it. Teachers, especially professors, are extremely lacked. The classes, which should be on small scale are enlarged into big ones (with eighty to one hundred students). In the labs, several students sharing one equipment can be seen everywhere. The above scenes all intangibly make a great influence on students. As a student, who will receive higher education, what kinds of university I will choose have much relation with my future employment. Therefore, even though the tuition fees for Chinese universities are less than that in America, I don’t want to make any mistakes on my future, which means to receive such rough education. As we all know, there is a sound education system in U.S. Many universities in U.S. are famous in the world owing to their academic achievements. There are advanced teaching facilities, too. I firmly believe that I will receive better qualitative education on in your country. Research Papers on Adapting Theory Into Practice Admission EssayStandardized TestingThree Concepts of PsychodynamicResearch Process Part OneQuebec and CanadaInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesCapital PunishmentRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfTwilight of the UAW

Abstract Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Abstract - Article Example These differences were pointed out various experts and authors, which have been featured in articles. So, this paper focusing on two articles titled Mentoring and coaching: what’s the difference? Written by David Macafee and Bob Garvey and Coach, Mentor: Is there a difference? written by Matt M. Starcevich will first provide a summary of the article, followed by the discussion of the main issues in both the articles and its impact organizations, finally ending with a contrast and comparison with the text titled Employee Training and Development written by Raymond A. Noe. David Macafee and Bob Garvey start of their article by providing details about the origins of the word and practice of mentoring and coaching. Then, before focusing on the differences, they first start off by providing the similarities between coaching and mentoring. In the main body of the article, the authors discuss coaching and mentoring separately, but in that discussion, they point out how both of them differ in the purpose and in the process. That is, they opine that mentorship is a long-term beneficiary act, while coaching is a short-term performance-oriented act. In the subsequent paragraphs, the authors discuss the difference by focusing on the applications of coaching and mentoring, and how they are applied differently in differently. The authors mainly point out how coaching has become more commercialized than mentoring. The authors Macafee and Garvey end the article by stressing the importance of having good and effective coaches and mentors, and how they can bring out positive effects on the employee and thereby the organization as a whole. On the other, in the second article, its author Starcevich begins off his article by pointing about an on-line survey conducted â€Å"to define what protà ©gà ©Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s felt were the attributes of effective mentoring relationships† (Starcevich, 2007). Then he jumps in the main

Practicum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Practicum - Essay Example Therefore, governments take great steps to enhance the GDP of their country. Money flowing into different industries of a country eventually translates into an increased GDP and higher economic results. One of the industries of a country that needs to flourish is the Tourism Industry. The reason is that this industry attracts the money of foreign investors or residents, and it flows in the financial system of the country that is providing tourism opportunities. This rule is not an exception in the case of Australia. Australia’s tourism activities range from accommodations and car hires to cruise operation and theme parks and major attraction operations. In the year 2005-2006, private businesses spent $840 million on the marketing of tourism related activities; this was a 9.9% increase over year 2003-2004 marketing expenditure. Among this, most of the expenses were accounted to marketing targeted at the domestic travelers (74%), compared to international travelers which accumulated up to 26%1. In the year ended 2009, the industry experienced an Internal Consumption of $92,003 Million, comprising primarily of International consumption of $23,546 Million and a domestic consumpt ion of $68,456 Million. The figures also show that more focus is given to domestic travelers relative to international holiday makers. The total direct tourism inflow to the GDP in the system came out to be $32,828 Million in 20092. The tourism contributed a total of 2.6% of the GDP in the year ended 2009; which was a decrease of 0.2% compared to the previous year. The reason behind this was that the Australian economy boosted up, and more people travelled overseas rather than internally, which created a plunge in the value of Tourism industry. Australian economy basically measures the effect of tourism activities by the demand that is created by the travelers and the tourism products and services by the domestic producers. The biggest

How do people with schizophrenia develop professionally and socially Research Paper

How do people with schizophrenia develop professionally and socially - Research Paper Example hat numerous patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders endure problems in coping with everyday and unpredicted stress (Lysaker, Tsai, & Hammoud, 2009). They may have difficulties in identifying objects/people, verbal fluency (Landrà ¸ & Ueland, 2008), and in planning and initiating activities, which altogether affect basic social skills and behaviors at the workplace (Liddle, 2000, p.12). Because of these cognitive and social deficits, schizophrenics tend to disregard stressors through repression (Scholes & Martin, 2010), or no longer try alternative and productive measures of handing their problems (Lee & Schepp, 2011). This paper examines the effects of schizophrenia on the identities of people with this disorder. Several sources showed that though people with schizophrenia struggle with their mental condition during their lifetime, with proper treatment and support, they can live productive and independent lives (Liberman, & Silbert, 2005; Lysaker, Tsai, & Hammoud, 2009). Social impairments are considered as major parts of schizophrenia and poor social functioning is one of the symptoms needed to diagnose this mental illness (Birchwood, Birchwood, & Jackson, 2001, p.108). People with schizophrenia often suffer from semantic memory problems, which can affect their understanding of reality, as well as their social interactions and relationships (Doughty & Done, 2009). Doughty and Done (2009) conducted systematic review and meta-analyses to understand if people with schizophrenia generally suffer from problems with semantic memory, to determine the distinctive profile of the impairment across the variety of different tests of semantic memory, and to know how the semantic memory impairment interacts with other symptoms, especially the Formal Thought Disorder. They identified 91 relevant papers and findings showed that participants had impaired abilities in naming, word- picture matching, verbal fluency, associations, priming, and categorization; semantic

Additive Manufacturing of Medical Implants: A Review

Additive Manufacturing of Medical Implants: A Review E. Gordon Wayne State University College of Engineering Abstract Additive manufacturing has numerous applications and is gaining interest in the biomedical field. The quality of additively manufactured parts is constantly improving, which contributes to their increased use for medical implants in patients. This paper reviews the literature on surgical additive manufacturing applications used on patients, with a focus on the customization of 3D printed implants and the ability to incorporate scaffolds on the implant surface. Scholarly literature databases were used to find general information on the focus topics, as well as case studies of surgical applications of additive manufacturing implants in rodents and humans. The advantages of additive manufacturing medical implants include improved medical outcome, cost effectiveness, and reduced surgery time, as well as customization and incorporated scaffold. Overall, the most effective type of additive manufacturing for the medical implant application is electron beam melting using Ti-6Al-4V because it can produce a high quality, high purity biocompatible implant that has the required mechanical properties. Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Customized implants, Scaffold, 3D Printing, Ti-6Al-4V Introduction In recent years, additive manufacturing technologies have improved significantly, thus expanding the fields and applications for which they can be used. These 3D printing technologies create physical models from digital models without the need for tool and die and process planning. Additive manufacturing can fabricate prototypes of complex shapes in a variety of materials such as metals, polymers, and nylon. Metal components, in particular, can be used for practical applications such as medical implants: devices manufactured to replace or support a biological structure. The biocompatibility of these metallic devices must be considered, creating rigorous requirements for the material selection and final material properties of the structure. Studies have shown that additive manufacturing successfully produces implants with biocompatible materials that meet the structural requirements [1-6]. 3D printing medical implants can provide many benefits such as the customization and personalization of the implants, cost-effectiveness, increased productivity, and the ability to incorporate scaffold. Using custom made implants, fixtures and surgical tools can help decrease surgery time and patient recovery time, while increasing the likelihood of a successful surgery [7]. Another benefit is the cost efficiency of 3D printing medial implants. Traditional manufacturing methods are cheaper for large quantities, but are more expensive for personalized designs and small production runs [8, 9]. 3D printing is especially cost effective for small-sized implants like spinal or dental implants. 3D printing is also faster than traditional manufacturing if a custom implant needs to be made; traditional methods require milling, forging, and a long delivery time while 3D printing may only take about a day [1]. Another notable benefit of additive manufacturing is the ability to share data files of designs. Files saved as an .STL can be downloaded and printed anywhere in the world. The National Institutes of Health established a 3D Print Exchange to promote open-source sharing of 3D print files for medical models [7]. The most significant benefits for the biomedical industry, however, are the ability to manufacture biocompatible materials, customize implants, and incorporate a porous scaffold surface. Types of Additive Manufacturing The additive manufacturing approach uses computer software to slice a complex 3D model into layers of 2D cross-sections with a minute thickness. The layers are then printed layer by layer depending on the particular method chosen for the application. There are dozens of types of additive manufacturing systems on the market, some of the most common being stereolithography (SLA), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), 3D printing (3DP), and electron beam melting (EBM). These systems are classified according to the form of the raw material, which can be powder, liquid, or solid form [8]. The two types of additive manufacturing that are most commonly used for medical implants are SLS and EBM. Figure 1: Process chain for SLM and EBM. The pre-processing before manufacturing includes 3D modeling, file preparation, and slicing of the 3D model into layers. Post-processing may include heat treatment and polishing of fabricated parts [10]. Selective Laser Sintering An SLS printer uses a powder form of material for printing objects. A laser fuses a single layer of powder by drawing the shape of the object according to the first 2D cross-section of the 3D model. Immediately, the build platform is lowered by the defined layer thickness and another layer of powder is rolled across [10]. The process repeats, fusing each layer one at a time to form the object. SLS can be used with metal, ceramic, and plastic powders. The precision of the laser and the diameter of the powder determines the degree of detail of the final object, so it is possible to create detailed structures with an SLS printer [11]. Figure 2: Schematic of SLS system. The key components of SLM include the laser system (a fiber laser, F-theta and galvanometer used to control the laser beam movement) and the mechanical system (movable build platform and powder roller) [10]. Electron Beam Melting An EBM printer uses a powder form of material for printing objects, similar to SLS. However, while SLS uses a laser to fuse each layer of the powder, EBM uses an electron beam. This energy is delivered through an electric circuit between a tungsten filament inside of the electron gun and the build platform [10]. An electric current heats the filament to emit a beam of electrons [1]. Electric energy is transformed to heat energy which melts the powder on the build platform. The process continues similarly to SLS, where powder is spread across the platform in a thin layer, the cross-section of the object is melted, and then the build platform lowers by the layer thickness. A key element of EBM is that the build chamber is kept under vacuum, which allows the object to be maintain great detail (70-100ÃŽÂ ¼m) [1]. Figure 3: Schematic of EBM system. The key components of EBM include an electron beam system (electron gun assembly, electron beam focusing lens and deflection coils used to control the electron beam) and the mechanical system (movable powder rake and fixed powder cassettes) [10]. Materials of Medical Implants The most common metals used for surgical implants are stainless steel 316L (ASTM F138), Cobalt based alloys (ASTM F75 and ASTM F799) and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V (ASTM F67 and F136) [12, 13]. However, these metals have disadvantages such as the potential release of toxic ions and particles due to corrosion that cause inflammation and allergic reactions, affecting biocompatibility [14]. Also, the materials that have an elastic modulus that is not similar to natural bone stimulate new bone growth poorly [12]. Despite this, the low Youngs modulus, high strength, and nonlinear elasticity of titanium-based alloys make it the least harmful choice [3]. The most commonly used titanium alloy is Ti-6Al-4V (Ti64) because it also has a better resistance to corrosion compared to stainless steels and cobalt-based alloys [15]. Additive manufacturing has also been done using Tantalum. Tantalum is biocompatible, hard, ductile, and chemically resistant, but it is expensive and difficult to machine [6] . Titanium based alloys are superior, thus Ti-6Al-V4 is the best material for additive manufacturing medical implants. Material Youngs modulus (GPa) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%) TiTa 75.77  ± 4.04 924.64  ± 9.06 882.77  ± 19.60 11.72  ± 1.13 Ti6Al4V 131.51  ± 16.40 1165.69  ± 107.25 1055.59  ± 63.63 6.10  ± 2.57 cpTi 111.59  ± 2.65 703.05  ± 16.22 619.57  ± 20.25 5.19  ± 0.32 Table 1: Tensile properties of SLS produced TiTa, Ti6Al4V and commercially pure titanium samples (n = 5) [16]. Customized Implants Additive manufacturing allows for the design and fabrication of customized prosthetic implants that are created to meet the specific needs of a patient, such as the size, shape, and mechanical properties of the implant. Additive Manufacturing reduces design time as well as manufacturing time because the implant pattern is computer generated with CT and MRI scans, thus removing the need for a physical model [8]. The ability to produce custom implants quickly solves a common problem with orthopedics where standard implants do not always fit the needs of certain patients. Previously, surgeons had to manually modify implants to make them fit the patient [7]. These techniques can be used by professionals in a variety of specialties such as neurosurgery, orthopedics, craniofacial and plastic surgery, oncology, and implant dentistry [8]. One example of an application in which a customized implant is required is craniofacial reconstruction. Craniofacial abnormalities are a diverse group of congenital defects that affect a large number of people and can be acquired at birth or due to injuries or tumors [8]. Standard cranial implants rarely fit a patient precisely because skulls have irregular shapes [7]. The custom implant can be created by using a CT scan to create a 3D virtual model of the patients skull. Then the model can be used with CAD software to design an implant that would perfectly fit the patient [8]. Using custom implants has shown to improve the morphology for large and complex-shaped cranial abnormalities, and some researchers have observed a greater improvement in neurological functions than after similar surgeries using traditionally manufactured implants [17, 18]. Figure 4: Skull model and customized implant for craniofacial reconstruction surgery [8]. Scaffold Additive manufacturing medical implants allows the porosity of the surface to be designed, controlled, and interconnected, which provides better bone growth into implants, thus decreasing the chances of the body rejecting the implant. Additionally, the rough surface quality of 3D printed implants enhances bone-implant fixation [1]. Without scaffold, there is a risk of bone weakening and bone loss around the implant, which is a consequence of stress shielding due to high stiffness of materials [19]. The probability of this problem occurring is lessened when bone can grow into a porous surface of the implant [19]. Cellular lattice structures are classified by stochastic and non-stochastic geometries. The pores in stochastic structures have random variations in size and shape, while the pores in non-stochastic structures have repeating patterns of particular shapes and sizes [10]. The main challenge in additively manufacturing scaffolds is the difficulty to remove the loose powder from within the pores, but an advantage is that additive manufacturing technology allows for the manufacturing of different types of scaffolds if a design requires it; different regions of the implant could have different porosities [1, 10]. The procedure used to achieve the porous areas with traditional manufacturing methods includes coating a smooth surface with other materials such as plasma-sprayed titanium or a titanium wire mesh; however, combining different metals increases the risk of the body rejecting the implant. Additive manufacturing allows the smooth and porous surfaces to be fabricated with the same material, thus decreasing that risk. A variety of additive manufacturing techniques can be used to create the lattice structure, but scaffold can be fabricated by SLS or EBM without the need for support structures, thus making it the most effective method [5]. Figure 5: Acetabular cup with designedFigure 6: (a) Porous femoral stem on the building porous surface [10].platform, (b) post-processed femoral stem [5]. Conclusion There are many advantages to using additive manufacturing to fabricate surgical implants. These benefits include improved medical outcome, cost effectiveness, reduced surgery time, as well as customization and scaffold. Overall, the most effective type of additive manufacturing for the medical implant application is Electron Beam Melting because it can produce a high quality, high purity biocompatible implant that has the required mechanical properties. The recommended metal to use for most implants is the titanium-based alloy Ti-6Al-4V because of its low Youngs modulus, high strength, nonlinear elasticity, and corrosion resistance. Overall, additive manufacturing is an excellent production method for medical implants because it allows surgeons to customize implants and scaffold to the specific needs of the patient. References 1.Petrovic, V., et al., Additive manufacturing solutions for improved medical implants. 2012: INTECH Open Access Publisher. 2.Ahn, Y.K., et al., Mechanical and microstructural characteristics of commercial purity titanium implants fabricated by electron-beam additive manufacturing. Materials Letters, 2017. 187: p. 64-67. 3.Yan, L.M., et al., Improved mechanical properties of the new Ti-15Ta-xZr alloys fabricated by selective laser melting for biomedical application. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016. 688: p. 156-162. 4.Caldarise, S., Hip joint prostheses and methods for manufacturing the same. 1996, Google Patents. 5.Simoneau, C., et al., Development of a porous metallic femoral stem: Design, manufacturing, simulation and mechanical testing. Materials Design, 2017. 114: p. 546-556. 6.Wauthle, R., et al., Additively manufactured porous tantalum implants. Acta Biomaterialia, 2015. 14: p. 217-225. 7.Ventola, C.L., Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Current and Projected Uses. Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 2014. 39(10): p. 704-711. 8.Jardini, A.L., et al., Cranial reconstruction: 3D biomodel and custom-built implant created using additive manufacturing. Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery, 2014. 42(8): p. 1877-1884. 9.DUrso, P.S., et al., Custom cranioplasty using stereolithography and acrylic. British Journal of Plastic Surgery, 2000. 53(3): p. 200-204. 10.Sing, S.L., et al., Laser and electronà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ beam powderà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ bed additive manufacturing of metallic implants: A review on processes, materials and designs. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 2016. 34(3): p. 369-385. 11.Hoy, M.B., 3D printing: making things at the library. Med Ref Serv Q, 2013. 32(1): p. 94-9. 12.Kokubo, T., et al., Bioactive metals: preparation and properties. J Mater Sci Mater Med, 2004. 15(2): p. 99-107. 13.Staiger, M.P., et al., Magnesium and its alloys as orthopedic biomaterials: A review. Biomaterials, 2006. 27(9): p. 1728-1734. 14.Polo-Corrales, L., M. Latorre-Esteves, and J.E. Ramirez-Vick, Scaffold Design for Bone Regeneration. Journal of nanoscience and nanotechnology, 2014. 14(1): p. 15-56. 15.Dinda, G.P., L. Song, and J. Mazumder, Fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V Scaffolds by Direct Metal Deposition. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions a-Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science, 2008. 39A(12): p. 2914-2922. 16.Sing, S.L., W.Y. Yeong, and F.E. Wiria, Selective laser melting of titanium alloy with 50 wt% tantalum: Microstructure and mechanical properties. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 2016. 660: p. 461-470. 17.Rotaru, H., et al., Cranioplasty With Custom-Made Implants: Analyzing the Cases of 10 Patients. Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, 2012. 70(2): p. e169-e176. 18.Agner, C., M. Dujovny, and M. Gaviria, Neurocognitive Assessment Before and after Cranioplasty. Acta Neurochirurgica, 2002. 144(10): p. 1033-1040. 19.Shah, F.A., et al., Long-term osseointegration of 3D printed CoCr constructs with an interconnected open-pore architecture prepared by electron beam melting. Acta Biomaterialia, 2016. 36: p. 296-309. Bacillus Thuringiensis: Distribution and Habitat Bacillus Thuringiensis: Distribution and Habitat LITERATURE REVIEW For several decades since its discovery, formulations of Bacillus thuringiensis (B. t.) have been seen as the ideal means of controlling Lepidoteran pests in agriculture because of the many attributes that differentiate this microbial insecticide from the synthetic chemical formulations. No toxicity to mammals, environmental friendliness, apparent immunity to the pesticide resistance phenomenon (no longer true), good integration with other pest control methods and the possibility of being mass produced at farm level at low cost, all made B. thuringiensis the much-needed tool for IPM programmes in developing countries. Research of almost 85 years reveals that Bacillus spp., especially B. thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus are the most potent biopesticides (Boucias Pendland, 1998). B. thuringiensis is a species of bacteria that has insecticidal properties that affects a specific range of insect orders. There are at least 34 subspecies of  B. thuringiensis (also called serotypes o r varieties) and possibly over 800 strain isolates (Swadener, 1994). B. thuringiensis accounts for about 5-8% of Bacillus spp. population in the environment (Hastowo et al., 1992). Till date more than 130 species of lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran insects are found to be controlled by  B. thuringiensis (Dean, 1984). Historical Background of B. thuringiensis B. thuringiensis are interesting and important bacteria used in the biological control of insect pest which form toxic crystal proteins at the time of sporulation. Perhaps the most well known and widely used biopesticide comes from B. thuringiensis, a bacterium that produces insecticidal proteins during its sporulation. This common soil bacterium, most abundantly found in grain dust from soil and other grain storage facilities, was discovered first in Japan in 1901 by Ishawata and then in 1911 in Germany by Berliner (Baum et al., 1999). It was subsequently found that thousands of strains of B. thuringiensis exist (Lereclus, 1993). The bacterium was isolated from diseased larvae of Anagasta kuehniella, and this finding led to the establishment of B. thuringiensis as microbial insecticide. The first record of its application to control insects was in Hungary at the end of 1920, and in Yugoslavia at the beginning of 1930s, it was applied to control the European corn borer (Lords, 2005). Sporine which was the first commercial product of B. thuringiensis was available in 1938 in France (Waiser, 1986) for the control of flour moth (Jacobs, 1951). Unfortunately, the product was used only for a very short time, due to World War II (Nester et al., 2002). Formation of transgenic plant was also observed. The first reports of insertion of genes encoding for B. thuringiensis delta-endotoxins into plants came in 1987 and the first transgenic plants to express B. thuringiensis toxins were tobacco and tomato plants (van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). In 1957 pacific yeast products commercialized the first strain on B. thuringiensis, named as Thuricide due to the increasing concern of biopesticide over the use of chemical insecticides. B. thuringiensis is a gram-positive spore-forming bacterium that produces crystalline proteins called deltaendotoxins during its stationary phase of growth (Schnepf et al., 1998). The crystal is released to the environment after analysis of the cell wall at the end of sporulation, and it can account for 20 to 30% of the dry weight of the sporulated cells (Schnepf et al., 1998) Distribution Habitat of B. thuringiensis This bacterium is distributed worldwide (Martin Travers, 1989). The soil has been described as its main habitat; however it has also been isolated from foliage, water, storage grains, and dead insects, etc (Iriarte Caballero, 2001). Isolation of strains from dead insects has been the main source for commercially used varieties, which include kurstaki, isolated from A. kuehniella; israelensis, isolated from mosquitoes, and tenebrionis, isolated from Tenebrio monitor larvae (Ninfa Rosas, 2009; Iriarte Caballero, 2001).. The spores of B. thuringiensis persist in soil, and vegetative growth occurs when nutrients are available (DeLucca et al., 1981; Akiba, 1986; Ohba Aizawa, 1986; Travers et al., 1987; Martin Travers, 1989). DeLucca et al., (1981) found that B. thuringiensis represented between 0.5% and 0.005% of all Bacillus species isolated from soil samples in the USA. Martin Travers (1989) recovered B. thuringiensis from soils globally. Meadows (1993) isolated B. thuringiensis from 785 of 1115 soil samples, and the percentage of samples that contained  B. thuringiensis ranged from 56% in New Zealand to 94% in samples from Asia and central and southern Africa. Ohba Aizawa (1986) isolated B. thuringiensis from 136 out of 189 soil samples in Japan. There are several theories on the ecological niche filled by B. thuringiensis. Unlike most insect pathogenic microbes, B. thuringiensis generally recycle poorly and rarely cause natural epizootics in insects, leading to speculation that B. thuringiensis is essentially a soil micro-organism that possesses incidental insecticidal activity (Martin Travers 1989). Evidence to support this view is that B. thuringiensis are commonly reported in the environment independent of insects and there is a lack of association between occurrence and insect activity (van Frankenhuyzen 1993). Meadows (1993) suggested four possible explanations for the presence of B. thuringiensis in soil: 1) rarely grows in soil but is deposited there by insects; 2) may be infective to soil-dwelling insects (as yet undiscovered); 3) may grow in soil when nutrients are available; and 4) an affinity with B. cereus. B. thuringiensis has been found extensively in the phylloplane. Numerous  B. thuringiensis subspecies have been recovered from coniferous trees, deciduous trees and vegetables, as well as from other herbs (Smith Couche, 1991; Damgaard et al., 1997). B. thuringiensis deposited on the upper side of leaves (exposed to the sun) may remain effective for only 1-2 days, but B. thuringiensis on the underside of leaves (i.e. protected from the sun) may remain active for 7-10 days (Swadner, 1994). B. thuringiensis kurstaki has been recovered from rivers and public water distribution systems after an aerial application of Thuricide 16B (Ohana, 1987). Crystal Composition and Morphology The existence of parasporal inclusions in B. thuringiensis was first noted in 1915 (Berliner, 1915), but their protein composition was not delineated until the 1950s (Angus, 1954). Hannay (1953) detected the crystalline fine structure that is a property of most of the parasporal inclusions. B. thuringiensis subspecies can synthesize more than one inclusion, which may contain different ICPs (Hannay, 1953). Depending on their ICP composition, the crystals have various forms (bipyramidal, cuboidal, flat rhomboid, or a composite with two or more crystal types) (Bulla et al., 1977; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). A partial correlation between crystal morphology, ICP composition, and bioactivity against target insects has been established (Bulla et al., 1977; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989; Lynch Baumann, 1985). Classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies The classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies based on the serological analysis of the flagella (H) antigens was introduced in the early 1960s (de Barjac Bonnefoi, 1962). This classification by serotype has been supplemented by morphological and biochemical criteria (de Barjac, 1981). Until 1977, only 13 B. thuringiensis subspecies had been described, and at that time all subspecies were toxic to Lepidopteran larvae only. The discovery of other subspecies toxic to Diptera (Goldberg Margalit, 1977) and Coleoptera (Krieg et al., 1983) enlarged the host range and markedly increased the number of subspecies. Up to the end of 1998, over 67 subspecies based on flagellar H-serovars had been identified. Genetics of ICP In the early 1980s, it was established that most genes coding for the ICPs reside on large transmissible plasmids, of which most are readily exchanged between strains by conjugation (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1981). Since these initial studies, numerous ICP genes have been cloned, sequenced and used to construct  B. thuringiensis strains with novel insecticidal spectra (Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). The currently known crystal (cry) gene types encode ICPs that are specific to either Lepidoptera (cryI), Diptera and Lepidoptera (cryII), Coleoptera (cryIII), Diptera (cryIV), or Coleoptera and Lepidoptera (cryV) (Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1989). All ICPs described to date attack the insect gut upon ingestion. To date, each of the proteolytically activated ICP molecules with insecticidal activity has a variable C-terminal domain, which is responsible for receptrecognition (host susceptibility), and a conserved  N-terminal domain, which induces pore formation (toxicity) (Li et al., 1991). Most naturally occurring B. thuringiensis strains contain ICPs active against a single order of insects. However, conjugative transfer between B. thuringiensis strains or related species can occur, resulting in new strains with various plasmid contents (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980). Thus the mobility of the cry genes and the exchange of plasmids may explain the diverse and complex activity spectra observed in B. thuringiensis (Gonzà ¡lez Carlton, 1980; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1981; Gonzà ¡lez et al., 1982; Reddy et al., 1987; Jarrett Stephenson, 1990). New B. thuringiensis strains have been developed by conjugation that is toxic to two insect orders. Nutritional status of B. thuringiensis Since sporulation and germination in bacilli are dependent on the nutritional status of the organism (Hardwick Foster, 1952), a study of the nutritional requirement of  B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis is important for delineating the control mechanisms which regulate spore and parasporal crystal formation. Certain amino acids support growth, sporulation and crystal formation of B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, while others inhibit the growth (Singer et al., 1966; Singer Rogoff, 1968; Bulla et al., 1975; Nickerson Bulla, 1975; Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977). A lower concentration of cystine (Nickerson Bulla, 1975) or cysteine (Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977) promotes growth, sporulation and crystal formation in Î’. thuringiensis, while at a higher concentration of cys/cysSH, only the vegetative growth was observed, (Rajalakshmi Shethna, 1977). Classification of B. thuringiensis The classification of B. thuringiensis subspecies based on the serological analysis of the flagella (H) antigens was introduced in the early 1960s (de Barjac Bonnefoi, 1962). This classification by serotype has been supplemented by morphological and biochemical criteria (de Barjac, 1981). Many strains of B. thuringiensis have been isolated and classified within more than 20 different varieties by serological techniques. On the basis of their potency for insect these varieties have been grouped into five pathotypes: Lepidopteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis .var Kurstaki) Dipteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis . var israelensis) Coleopteran-Specific (e.g. B. thuringiensis .var. tenebrionis) Those active against Lepidoptera and Dipter(e.g. B. thuringiensis . var. aizawai) Those with no toxicity recorded in insects (e.g. B. thuringiensis . var. Dakota) Mode of Action The ICP structure and function have been reviewed in detail by Schnepf et al., (1998). Binding of the ICP to putative receptors is a major determinant of ICP specificity and the formation of pores in the midgut epithelial cells is a major mechanism of toxicity (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). After ingestion of B. thuringiensis by insect the crystal is dissolved in the insects alkaline gut. Then the digestive enzymes that are present in insects body break down the crystal structure and activate B. thuringiensiss insecticidal component, called the delta-endotoxin (Swadner, 1994). The delta-endotoxin binds to the cells lining the midgut membrane and creates pores in the membrane, upsetting the guts ion balance. The insect soon stops feeding and starves to death (Gill et al., 1992). Target Organisms In the past decades, B. thuringiensis Cry toxins were classified according to the target pest they attacked (Hofte Whiteley, 1998); however, due to the dual toxic activity exhibited by some cry genes and the inconsistencies in the original classification proposed by Hà ¶fte and Whiteley(1998), Crickmore et al., (1998) proposed a revision of the nomenclature for insecticidal crystal proteins, based on the ability of a crystal protein to exhibit some experimentally verifiable toxic effect in a target organism (Crickmore et al., 1998; Hà ¶fte Whiteley, 1998). The diversity of B. thuringiensis is demonstrated in the almost 70 serotypes and the 92 subspecies described to date (Galan-Wong et al., 2006). It is well known that many insects are susceptible to the toxic activity of  B. thuringiensis; among them, lepidopterans have been exceptionally well studied, and many toxins have shown activity against them (Jarret Stephens., 1990; Sefinejad et al., 2008). Order Lepidoptera encompasses the majority of susceptible species belonging to agriculturally important families such as Cossidae, Gelechiidae, Lymantriidae, Noctuidae, Pieridae, Pyralidae, Thaumetopoetidae, Tortricidae, and Yponomeutidae (Iriarte Caballero, 2001). General patterns of use: Commercial applications of B. thuringiensis have been directed mainly against lepidopteran pests of agricultural and forest crops; however, in recent years strains active against coleopteran pests have also been marketed (Tomlin, 1997). Strains of B. thuringiensis kurstaki active against dipteran vectors of parasitic disease organisms have been used in public health programmes (Tomlin, 1997). Applications in agriculture and forestry Commercial use of B. thuringiensis on agricultural and forest crops dates back nearly  30 years, when it became available in France (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). Use of  B. thuringiensis has increased greatly in recent years and the number of companies with a commercial interest in B. thuringiensis products has increased from four in 1980 to at least 18 (Van Frankenhuyzen, 1993). Several commercial B. thuringiensis products with B. thuringiensis aizawai, B. thuringiensis kuehniella or B. thuringiensis tenebrionise have been applied to crops using conventional spraying technology. Various formulations have been used on major crops such as cotton, maize, soybeans, potatoes, tomatoes, various crop trees and stored grains. Formulations have ranged from ultralow-volume oil to high-volume, wettable powder and aqueous suspensions (Tomlin, 1997). In the main, naturally occurring B. thuringiensis strains have been used, but transgenic microorganisms expressing B. thuringiensis toxins have been developed by conjugation and by genetic manipulation, and in some cases, these have reached the commercial market (Carlton et al., 1990). These modified organisms have been developed in order to increase host range, prolong field activity or improve delivery of toxins to target organisms. For example, the coleopteran-active cryIIIA gene has been transferred to a lepidopteran-active B. thuringiensis kuehniella (Carlton et al., 1 990). A plasmid bearing an ICP gene has been transferred from B. thuringiensis to a non-pathogenic leaf-colonizing isolate of Pseudomonas fluorescens; fixation of the transgenic cells produces ICP contained within a membrane which prolongs persistence (Gelernter, 1990). Applications in vector control B. thuringiensis Kurstaki has been used to control both mosquitos and blackflies in large-scale programmes (Lacey et al., 1982; Chilcott et al., 1983; Car, 1984; Car de Moor, 1984; Cibulsky Fusco, 1987; Becker Margalit, 1993; Bernhard Utz, 1993). For example, in Germany 23 tonnes of B. thuringiensis Kurstaki wettable powder and 19 000 litres of liquid concentrate were used to control mosquitos (Anopheles and Culex species) between 1981 and 1991 in the Upper Rhine Valley (Becker Margalit, 1993). In China, approximately 10 tonnes of B. thuringiensis Kurstaki have been used in recent years to control the malarial vector, Anopheles sinensis. Resistance of Insect Populations A number of insect populations of several different species with different levels of resistance to B. thuringiensis have been obtained by laboratory selection experiments during the last 15 years (Schnepf et al., 1998). The species include Plodia interpunctella, Cadra cautella, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Chrysomela scripta, Tricholplusia ni, Spodoptera littoralis, Spodoptera exigua, Heliothis virescens, Ostrinia nubilalis and Culex quinquefasciatus (Schnepf et al., 1998). The Indian meal moth, a pest of grain storage areas, was the first insect to develop resistance to B. thuringiensis. Kurstaki (Swadner, 1994). Resistance progresses more quickly in laboratory experiments than under field conditions due to higher selection pressure in the laboratory (Tabashnik, 1991). No indications of insect resistance to B .thuringiensis were observed in the field, until the development of resistance was ob-served in the diamondback moth in crops where B. thuringiensis had been used repeatedly. Since then, resistance has been observed in the laboratory in the tobacco budworm, the Colorado potato beetle and other insect species (McGaughey, 1992) B. thuringiensiss Ecological Impacts Some of the most serious concerns about widespread use of B. thuringiensis as a pest control technique come from the effects it can have on animals other than the pest targeted for control. All B. thuringiensis products can kill organisms other than their intended targets. In turn, the animals that depend on these organisms for food are also impacted (Swadner, 1994). Effect on Beneficial insects: Many insects are not pests, and any pest management technique needs to be especially concerned about those that are called beneficials, the insects that feed or prey on pest species (Swadner, 1994). B. thuringiensis has impacts on a number of beneficial species. For example, studies of a wasp that is a parasite of the meal moth (Plodia interpunctella) found that treatment with B. thuringiensis reduced the number of eggs produced by the parasitic wasp, and the percentage of those eggs that hatched (Salama, 1993). Production and hatchability of eggs of a predatory bug were also decreased (Salama, 1991). Other insects: Many insects that do not have as directly beneficial importance to agriculture are important in the function and structure of ecosystems. A variety of studies have shown that B. thuringiensis applications can disturb insect communities (Swadner, 1994). Research following large-scale B. thuringiensis applications to kill gypsy moth larvae in Lane County, Oregon, found that the number of oak-feeding caterpillar species was reduced for three years following spraying, and the number of caterpillars was reduced for two years (Miller, 1990). Birds: Because many birds feed on the caterpillars and other insects affected by B. thuringiensis applications, it is not surprising that impacts of B. thuringiensis spraying on birds have been documented (Swadner, 1994). In New Hampshire, when B. thuringiensis-treatment reduced caterpillar abundance, black-throated blue warblers made fewer nesting attempts and also brought fewer caterpillars to their nestlings (Rodenhouse, 1992). Effects on Humans Eight human volunteers ingested 1 gram of a B. thuringiensis kuehniella formulation  (3 ÃÆ'- 109 spores/g of powder) daily for 5 days. Of the eight volunteers, five also inhaled 100 mg of the B. thuringiensis kuehniella powder daily for five days. Comprehensive medical examinations immediately before, after, and 4 to 5 weeks later failed to demonstrate any adverse health effects, and all the blood chemistry and urinalysis tests were negative (Fisher Rosner, 1959). Pivovarov et al., (1977) reported that ingestion of foods contaminated with  B. thuringiensis gastroenteitis at concentrations of 105 to 109 cells/g caused nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea and tenesmus, colic-like pains in the abdomen, and fever in three of the four volunteers studied. The toxicity of the B. thuringiensis gastroenteritis strain may have been due to beta-exotoxin (Ray, 1990). In a purified form, some of the proteins produced by B. thuringiensis are acutely toxic to mammals. However, in their natural form, acute toxicity of commonly-used  B. thuringiensis varieties is limited to caterpillars, mosquito larvae, and beetle larvae (Swadner, 1994). Special Concerns about B. thuringiensis Toxicity The earliest tests done regarding B. thuringiensiss toxicity were conducted using B. thuringiensis var. thuringiensis, a B. thuringiensis strain known to contain a second toxin called beta-exotoxin (Swadner, 1994). The beta-exotoxin is toxic to vertebrates, with an LD 50 (median lethal dose; the dose that kills 50 percent of a population of test animals) of 13-18 milligrams per kilogram of body weight (mg/kg) in mice when injected into the abdomen. An oral dose of 200 mg/kg per day killed mice after eight days (swadner, 1994) Beta-exotoxin also causes genetic damage to human blood cells (Meretoja, 1977).

Blood And Excerise :: essays research papers

Blood and Excerise Type II muscle fibers oxidize lactate at a very fast rates. When muscle contraction produces a significant amount of lactate, it is then released into the central circulation of the blood, and within seconds it is made available to that muscle for energy. Therefore, 75% of the lactate produced from high intensity exercise is made available for energy production in type II muscle fibers. The remaining 25% of lactic acid is used for energy in the heart, the make up of liver glycogen, and the supply of energy to inactive muscles. A good example of this would be a runner who is exceeding his or her planned race pace in a 10k. The excess lactic acid accumulated in the contracting muscle from insufficient oxygen is then made available to inactive muscles (e.g., the arms) from the central circulation of blood. The remaining lactic acid that is not directly oxidized for fuels is sent to the liver, where it is stored as glycogen. In the process of exercise, glycogen is released into the blood stream to form glucose. Lactate is Good As coach and athlete you must learn how to teach the body to handle lactic acid. It is imperative, if you want successes in today's highly competitive field of athletics to train your muscles, body and mind to accomplish gains in performance even in the presence of lactic acid. Coaches and athletes should design training programs with this being a primary focus. This is done by two basic components of training. Long Slow Distance (LSD) training beyond the normal racing distance, will develop tissue enzyme adaptations that will rely upon the use of free fatty acids for energy production, which will result in less lactic acid being produced. LSD training will also increase the rate of lactic acid removal from the blood and muscles. During continuos steady state exercise, you increase capillary density and mitochondria function in skeletal muscle, These two peripheral adaptations brought on by LSD training will enable your body to handle lactic acid much more efficiency. High intensity training will develop the cardiovascular system to increase the rate of oxygen transport to the contracting muscles so there is less reliance on carbohydrate breakdown to lactic acid. High intensity training such as intervals., and variable pace workouts, will increase your functional capacity (Max VO2). This means that in actual competition you will produce less lactic acid, because your muscles are relying mostly on the use of free fatty acids for fuel. The lactic acid that is produce will be removed by the tissues that can use it as fuel, such as the

Poetic Language Essay

There is no denying that when an author writes a text there is more meaning in it than just the obvious plot, authors constantly litter their texts with themes, double entendre, metaphor etc. all of which can be easily missed by the reader. If one reader was to miss many of these techniques but another was to pickup on most, then surely the latter would have understood the work better, and in the way it was intended, and therefore their interpretation is the more valid of the two. However we could argue that the text was written badly, because certain readers cannot understand it in the way it was intended. All this is just a small part of one of the biggest debates in modern literature and criticism, and that is whether or not it is necessary to know the history and context behind a book to fully understand it. It used to be that a critic would say that the best way to understand a work is to understand each individual author, and the circumstances behind their text, today however the general feeling is that it is best not to cloud the readers judgement with all the facts behind a text. Critics would today say that the best way to read a text is to ignore everything that goes with it and just concentrate on what you, the reader, picks up from it. The reason this debate is so important in relation to this essay is that the amount of information the reader is given about a text will always affect, not only their understanding of it, but also the way in which they understand it. That is to say that if a reader is given a lot of information about a text then it is bound to make them except the book in the way it was intended. If they had not been given that information then it is very likely that they would have interpreted it in a way that was closer and more personal to them (‘interpretation is a function of identity†¦all of us as we read, use literary work to symbolise and finally to replicate ourselves’ – Norman Holland, Introduction to Literature 13). In this example which of the two interpretations is more creditable, should the perfect text be written in such a way as to eliminate any interpretations other than what was intended by the author; or should it be written in a way that leaves the meaning open to debate and therefore have an infinite number of interpretations? Either way once a text has been shown to the public then the author has no control of what the reader will make of it, or how it is interpreted, and so it is left to the reader to make their own judgements and except it in the way that they want to. So is their interpretation incorrect? Obviously there is no way to prove the answer to this question but in this essay I intend to discuss both sides to the argument and draw up a conclusion as to what I think the answer is. The most obvious place to start would be by looking at other people’s interpretations of texts, and some of those interpretations are in films. I realise that film is never the best example to use when discussing literature because the plot and script are very rarely the same as the original. However, in the case of Shakespeare, this is not always true because the text is so well written and so powerful that it would be wrong and completely missing the point of making the film if you were to change it. Also the interpretations in films are usually much more diverse and varied which makes it a good example to look at because if you can find an interpretation which has been recommended to students as one not to use, as valid (‘†¦most candidates appeared to know Macbeth well. Some, however, were handicapped by having seen a film version†¦candidates should remember that it is Shakespeare’s text which is being examined.’ – Holderness, Interpreting Shakespeare 113); then that goes a long way to show that any interpretation is indeed a valid one. In the conclusion of a book called Interpreting Shakespeare on Screen the author sums up how Shakespeare is generally interpreted by the directors: ‘I have considered the ways in which films of Shakespeare’s plays, like literary criticism, produce different views on issues such as violence (by, to a greater extent, pretending it is absent from Shakespeare’s plays); gender (film changes gender roles, producing different Ophilias and Gertrudes†¦); sexuality†¦; race†¦; and finally, nationalism†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Cartmell, Interpreting Shakespeare 109) Cartmell shows us here how every different director has interpreted parts of the same play differently. She makes it clear that she does not agree with everything they have done, however she does recognise them as valid interpretations and has devoted a lot of time and effort to studying these films and producing a book which shows us the different interpretations and techniques used in filming Shakespeare’s plays. I have to agree with Cartmell on the point that to try and say that there is no violence in Shakespeare is ridiculous, all you have to do is look at Macbeth or Hamlet to see that that is wrong. These directors who have chosen to ignore this violence must have interpreted it in a different way, perhaps they saw the violence as justified and so chose to ignore it for that reason. Whatever the reason, is this interpretation as valid as Cartmell’s and mine? I would like to say that it is not but I cannot rule it out without having the other side of the argument put to me, and once an argument has been put forward surely that gives their view some sort of validity. If you have two people who have interpreted a section of prose differently and they can both argue their theory well then who is to say that they are not both valid. On the other hand if you again have two people with different views about a book’s meaning but this time one of them manages to persuade the other that they are wrong and so changes his mind, then would this not mean that the person with the better and stronger argument is the only one with the valid interpretation? After all the dictionary definition of valid is ‘soundly reasoned or having legal force’ and so if someone has an opinion about a text and stands by it but cannot argue the point surely this makes their opinion an invalid one. In An Introduction to Literature, Criticism and Theory reader-response criticism is summed up in three different ways. Firstly it is said that each individual, when reading, will always respond in a personal way. They will take what is written and match it to the situation they are in or have been in, and so can relate to the text better by doing this. This theory would explain why different people come up with different interpretations, it also suggests that each of those interpretations are valid because if you are relating a text to your personal experiences then it has to be a genuine response. Like every theory though there is always another side to the argument and this is where Stanley Fish’s idea that each reader belongs to a ‘community of readers’ comes in. There is still the idea that the reader relates to the text with their personal experience, and I do not think that many people would dispute that idea, but what Fish says is that the personal side to it is much more generalised. It is more to do with your background and your education, someone from England would interpret a book differently than someone from Africa because their backgrounds are completely different. The third explanation that is given is Wolfgang Iser’s view, which is the one I relate to the most. His theory is that the reader’s imagination is what produces the interpretation. If there is a point in the text which is not fully explained then we, the reader, are left to work it out for ourselves, for example in King Lear when Cordillia tells her father that she loves him ‘according’ to her ‘bond’, the reader is left wondering why she did that and not just make something up to rival her sisters’ answers; was it because she is stubborn or perhaps for moral reasons? The answer that the reader comes up with is their imagination filling in the gap. As Iser said the reader ‘is drawn into the events and made to supply what is meant from what is not said’ (Iser 1995, 24). This is particularly relevant when it comes to explaining interpretation because it is ‘what is not said’ in a text that gets the reader thinking, if a detail is mentioned but not explained then it is left to the reader to make up their own conclusions. Northrop Frye shares the same opinion as Iser, he wrote that reading is ‘like a picnic to which the author brings the words and the reader the meaning’ (Frye, http://www.clas.ufi.edu). Interpretation is a huge part of literature, it is involved in any type of reading that we do and it is completely up to the reader to how that literature is receive. The author, or his input anyway, dies as soon as they let the public see their text which leaves the reader on their own to read between the lines and come up with whatever they like. Having said this it leaves us thinking that if the author leaves the interpretation up to the reader then how can that interpretation be wrong, every author excepts the fact that their book will be taken in a way that wasn’t intended and they will not try to change that because it is all part of literary criticism. An author wouldn’t ever say that someone’s opinion was invalid because valid does not mean it is what was intended it only means that it is justified. One of Iser’s main points whenever he is talking of interpretation is that ‘Every interpretation transposes something into a different register that is not part of the subject matter to be interpreted. Therefore each interpretation is an act of translation, in the course of which something is shifted into what it is not.’ (Iser, http://sun3.lib.uci.edu). What he means is that interpretation might as well mean the same as translation when talking about literature; because the author is not sitting next to the reader and explaining what was actually meant the reader has to do the working out for themselves, which means that they may translate what is written in front of them into ‘what it is not’. The reader is reading things in the text which were not put there deliberately, they are reading not what is said but what has not been said so a large group of people who all read the same text have no chance of all reading the same thing because everybody wi ll have filled in the gaps slightly differently. ‘If the poem has a voice, it is articulated before, and one rearticulates it, reads it with one’s own voice, one has a reading which cannot properly be univocal.’ (John Lye, http://www.brocku.ca/english). This is much the same point as Frye was making with his example of a picnic; the author only produces the words and then it is the reader’s job to find meaning to these words. That almost makes it sound as if the reader has the greater task out of the two and it maybe that they do if once they have read a work and come up with their interpretation (or translation) they are then told that it is not a valid reading of that text. I have said that this topic of interpretation is one of the largest in modern literature and it is very closely linked with an equally large topic, deconstruction. The obvious source to turn to on this is The Critic as Host. In Lye’s commentary of this essay he makes a very good summary of what Miller had written: ‘Deconstruction, Miller seems to be concluding, opens us to the power and the complexities of language, thought, tradition, influence, meaning, to the ambiguities and paradoxes which really constitute what we once mistook for a unified field theory of human knowledge, by providing a form, a way of proceeding, which acknowledges the deep mysteries of meaning and which allows us to free ourselves from the tyrannies of univocal reading.’ (Lye, http://www.brocku.ca/english). There are two parts to this quote that I want to briefly discuss. Firstly, the fact that deconstruction ‘opens us to the power’ of language, thought and meaning. This cannot be said better in any other way, this is exactly what deconstruction does and it is this that leads the readers on to making their own interpretations of a text. Deconstruction makes us, the reader, think and analyse what has been written and from that draw up our conclusion of what was actually meant. The second part I wanted to look at is the fact that deconstruction allows us ‘to free ourselves from the tyrannies of univocal reading.’ Is ‘univocal reading’ actually a tyranny? Miller and Lye obviously think so, and I would agree, if literature was as straight cut as being able to read a book and draw up exactly the same interpretation ass everyone else there would be no need or point to study it. So how does deconstruction free us from this tyranny? The answer is because it forces the reader to think for themselves, to interpret a text in the way they want it interpreted instead of how the author, or even a teacher tells them to interpret it. Deconstruction forces the reader to be open minded about a text; to try and read something almost original into it. Again this all leads to a different interpretation to what others have read. However, the question of whether thinking for oneself, and the new ideas and interpretations that brings is valid or not is still present. When I picked this question I always thought that the only possible answer was that every interpretation is a valid one, that is the opinion that most people hold. However, after exploring the topic I have found a few doubts. Although they come to expect it, is it really fair to take an authors text that they have probably been working on for a matter of years and completely change the meaning of it? Surely what they write is personal to them, not necessarily as an experience they have had but more that they have devoted so much time to their work to a standard that they see as perfection. They then introduce it to the public and a critic misinterprets it and gives it a bad review because they did not like their own translation of what was written. These doubts I have are not strong enough to change my mind, but they are there and should not be ignored. In closing I do believe that everybody is entitled to their own opinion, and literary criticism is exactly that, opinions. There is no way to write a text and ensure that every reader interprets it in the way it was intended. Authors are very interested to learn about different interpretations of their works and I think that it is this acceptance and acknowledgement from them that not proves but should persuade people that any interpretation of any work is a valid one. I will finish with a quote from an interpretation of Miller’s The Critic as Host that sums up what I believe to be the answer to whether all interpretations are valid or not: ‘The root of idea is the word for image. To imagine is to image. All figures are not what they figure. Univocality is impossible. Everything always means something else.'(Lye,http://www.brocku.ca/english).

How to Write IEP (Individualized Education Plan) Goals

How to Write IEP (Individualized Education Plan) Goals An Individualized Education Program (IEP) is a written plan developed for special education students. The IEP is generally updated annually by a team that often includes the special education teacher, special education administrator, general education teacher, specialists such as speech, occupational, and physical therapists, as well as a school nurse. Writing IEP goals correctly is vital to a special education students success because, unlike in general or regular education, students in special education are legally entitled to an education plan specifically tailored to their cognitive and physical ability and needs. The IEP goals lay out the roadmap for providing such an education. Key Takeaways: SMART IEP Goals IEP goals should be SMART: specific, measurable, attainable, results-oriented, and time-bound.SMART IEP goals are realistic for the student to achieve and explain how the student will accomplish them.Smart IEP goals always consider the students present levels of performance and include a brief description of how progress will be measured as well as what constitutes successful completion of each goal. SMART IEP Goals All IEP goals should be SMART goals, an acronym that refers to goals as specific, measurable, achievable, results-oriented, and time-bound. A SMART IEP goal will be realistic for the student to achieve and lay out how the student will accomplish it. Breaking down the components of SMART goals into their specific elements can make them easier to write. Specific: The goal should be specific in naming the skill or subject area and the targeted result. For example, a goal that is not specific might read, Adam will be a better reader. Such a goal fails to provide any details. Measurable: You should be able to measure the goal using standardized tests,  curriculum-based measurements  or screening, work samples, or even teacher-charted data. A goal that is not measurable might read, Joe will get better at solving math problems. Attainable: A lofty goal that is not attainable can discourage both teacher and student. A goal that is not attainable might read, Frank will ride public transportation all over town without any mistakes any time he wants. If Frank has never ridden public transportation, this goal is likely out of reach. Results-oriented: The goal should clearly spell out the expected result. A poorly worded goal might read, Margie will increase her eye contact with others. Theres no way to measure that and no indication of what the result might be. Time-bound: The goal should state specifically by what date the student is expected to accomplish it. A goal lacking a time expectation might read, Joe will explore career opportunities. Consider Present Level of Performance To write SMART goals, the IEP team needs to know the present levels at which the student is functioning. For example, you wouldnt expect a student to learn algebra by the next IEP if she is currently struggling to add two-digit numbers. Its important that the current levels of performance accurately and honestly reflect the students abilities and deficiencies. A report on the present levels of performance often begins with a statement of the students strengths, preferences, and interests. They would then cover: Academic skills: This lists the students ability in math, reading, and writing, and spells out deficiencies in these areas compared to grade-level peers. Communication development: This describes the level of communication at which the student is functioning as well as any deficits compared to same-age peers. If the student has speech deficits or is using vocabulary and sentence structure that are below grade-level peers, that would be noted here. Emotional/social skills: This describes the students social and emotional abilities, such as getting along with others, initiating and taking part in conversations with friends and classmates, and responding appropriately to stress. An issue in this area could interfere with a students ability to learn and interact with teachers and peers. Monitor Progress Once the IEP team has agreed on a set of goals for the year, its important to monitor the students progress toward meeting those goals. The process for monitoring the students progress is often included in the IEP goals themselves. For example, a SMART goal listed previously reads as follows: Penelope will be able to solve two-digit addition problems with 75 percent accuracy as measured by work samples, teacher-charted data, and standardized tests. For this goal, the teacher would collect work samples over a period of time, such as a week or month, to indicate Penelopes progress. Data collection  refers to regularly assessing a student’s success on individual items in her goals, usually at least once a week. For example, the teacher and paraprofessionals might maintain a daily or weekly log that shows how accurately Penelope is solving two-digit multiplication problems on a daily or weekly basis. Review and Update Benchmarks as Needed Since goals are written to cover an entire year, they are generally broken into benchmarks. These might be quarterly periods where the teacher and staff can monitor how well the student is progressing toward the specific goal. For example, the first benchmark might require Penelope to solve two-digit problems with 40 percent accuracy by the end of the first quarter; the second benchmark, three months later, might require her to solve problems at 50 percent accuracy, while a third might call for a 60 percent accuracy rate. If the student is not close to achieving these benchmarks, the team can include an addendum adjusting the final goal to a more reasonable level, such as 50 percent accuracy. Doing so provides the student with a more realistic chance of achieving the goal in the long run. IEP Goal Examples IEP goals should, as noted, follow the SMART acronym, ensuring that they are specific, measurable, achievable, results-oriented, and time-bound. Following are some examples: Adam will be  able to read a passage orally in a grade-level book at 110 to 130 words per minute with no more than 10 errors. This goal is specific because it specifies exactly how many words Adam will be able to read in a minute as well as the acceptable error rate. As another example, a SMART goal that is measurable might read: Penelope will be able to solve two-digit addition problems with 75 percent accuracy as measured by work samples, teacher-charted data, and standardized tests. This goal is measurable because it specifies the desired accuracy percentage on all work samples. A goal that is attainable goal might read: By the next meeting, Joe will travel from school to home safely on a public transportation bus once a week with 100 percent accuracy as measured by teacher-charted data. Put another way, this is a goal that Joe might well be able to reach; hence, it is attainable. A results-oriented goal could state: Margie will look the person speaking to her in the eye 90 percent of the time in four out of five daily opportunities, as measured by teacher-charted data. This goal focuses on results: It specifies what, exactly, the outcome will be if Margie reaches the goal. (Shell be able to look a person in the eye 90 percent of the time.) A time-bound goal, by contrast, might read: By the next meeting, Joe will explore career opportunities through a variety of media (such as books, library, internet, newspaper, or tours of job sites) with 100 percent accuracy in four out of five weekly trials, as measured by teacher-charted observation/data. Importantly, this goal specifies when Joe should reach the goal (by the next meeting, likely a year from the date the goal was initially accepted by the IEP team). With this goal, everyone on the IEP team is aware that Joe is expected to have explored the specified career opportunities by the next meeting.

Molecular Formula and Simplest Formula Example Problem

Molecular Formula and Simplest Formula Example Problem The molecular formula of a compound lists all the elements and the number of atoms of each element  that actually make up the compound. The simplest formula is similar where elements are all listed, but the numbers correspond to the ratios between the elements.  This worked example problem demonstrates how to use the simplest formula of a compound and its molecular mass to find the molecular formula. Molecular Formula from Simplest Formula Problem The simplest formula for vitamin C is C3H4O3. Experimental data indicates that the molecular mass of vitamin C is about 180. What is the molecular formula of vitamin C?SolutionFirst, calculate the sum of the atomic masses for C3H4O3. Look up the atomic masses for the elements from the Periodic Table. The atomic masses are found to be:H is 1.01C is 12.01O is 16.00Plugging in these numbers, the sum of the atomic masses for C3H4O3 is:3(12.0) 4(1.0) 3(16.0) 88.0This means the formula mass of vitamin C is 88.0. Compare the formula mass (88.0) to the approximate molecular mass (180). The molecular mass is twice the formula mass (180/88 2.0), so the simplest formula must be multiplied by 2 to get the molecular formula:molecular formula vitamin C 2 x C3H4O3 C6H8O6AnswerC6H8O6 Tips for Working Problems An approximate molecular mass is usually sufficient to determine the formula mass, but the calculations tend not to work out even as in this example. You are looking for the closest whole number to multiply by the formula mass to get the molecular mass. If you see that the ratio between formula mass and molecular mass is 2.5, you might be looking at a ratio of 2 or 3, but its more likely youll need to multiply the formula mass by 5. Theres often some trial and error in getting the correct answer. Its a good idea to check your answer by doing the math (sometimes more than one way) to see which value is closest. If youre using experimental data, there will be some error in your molecular mass calculation. Usually compounds assigned in a lab setting will have ratios of 2 or 3, not high numbers like 5, 6, 8, or 10 (although these values are also possible, especially in a college lab or real world setting). Its worth pointing out, while chemistry problems are worked using molecular and simplest formulas, real compounds dont always follow the rules. Atoms may share electrons such that ratios of 1.5 (for example) occur. However, use whole number ratios for chemistry homework problems! Determining the Molecular Formula From Simplest Formula Formula ProblemThe simplest formula for butane is C2H5  and its molecular mass is about 60. What is the  molecular formula  of butane?SolutionFirst, calculate the sum of the atomic masses for C2H5. Look up the  atomic masses  for the elements from the  Periodic Table. The atomic masses are found to be:H is 1.01C is 12.01Plugging in these numbers, the sum of the atomic masses for C2H5  is:2(12.0) 5(1.0) 29.0This means the formula mass of butane is 29.0. Compare the formula mass (29.0) to the approximate  molecular mass  (60). The molecular mass is  essentially  twice  the formula mass  (60/29 2.1),  so the simplest formula  must be multiplied by 2 to get the molecular formula:molecular formula of butane 2 x C2H5   C4H10AnswerThe molecular formula for butane is C4H10.

The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963. The Role of Diplomacy in Preventing Essay

The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963. The Role of Diplomacy in Preventing the 3rd Word War - Essay Example The Cuban missile crisis is largely held as the greatest military conflict that occurred during the Cold War. American destroyers were positioned along a picket line with the aim of intercepting Soviet ships moving missiles and atomic warheads to Cuba. Moreover, American air, naval pegged with ground forces got ready for air raids against Soviet missile sites under structure in Cuba. The Strategic Air Command stood put on an extraordinary state of vigilance– â€Å"DEFCON II,† merely one step away from the fact â€Å"war is imminent.† In October 1987, contrary to the setting of Mikhail Gorbachev’s glasnost, it is worth noting that a conference on the Cuban Missile Crisis was conducted. This was the first time, together with living veterans of the Kennedy Government, three reliable Soviet witnesses: the sons of Khrushchev coupled with his closest associate, Anastas Mikoyan, and a past Khrushchev speechwriter were in attendance. After years of persistent secr ecy, the display of reliable Kremlin insiders considerately, cordially, even optimistically linking anec ­dotes and examining the crisis was an exciting novelty, promis ­ing further exposes (Waltz, 2012). Evaluation His heart was thumping rapidly. His hands were quaking, and the tautness was taking his pant away. The tick tack of the watch was retelling him there was not ample time left. Similar to a chess game, John F. Kennedy was at the verge of making a quick and clever decision. Checkmate, and he would triumph in the game. But what if he made an erroneous move? A lot of people’s lives depended on his decision, hence were in his hands. What is branded as the â€Å"Fourteen days of October† (Van De Mark, 1996) stood as the closest that the universe had ever witnessed to a nuclear war. In the course of 1962, the Soviet Union started to construct secret missile headquarters in Cuba for the drive of creating equilibrium over the U.S. arms collection. The U.S., sensi ng a threat from the Soviet Union, took instant actions to  avert this progress. The condition eventually intensified, and neither side was philanthropic upon their stresses (Hershberg, 2004). Yet, as in each chess game, one can either gain, loose, or the game is haggard. In  politics, however, the game is only haggard when there is cooperation amongst the players. In this case, the destiny of millions plainly hinged upon the capability of two people President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev, to influence a compromise. Interests and Goals Certain people might claim that beginning a battle would be the greatest answer for  US. Of course, as a global influence, it would not have been tough for them to overthrow USSR. The conflict would not essentially have to be nuclear. One of the choices that Kennedy had was to block Cuba so as to strike the missiles located by USSR in Cuba’s terrain. It is worth noting that some people still consider that it would have be en a harmless option into backing the end of the conflict. However, this would not function as a way to terminate the conflict but somewhat to initiate it. What are thought to be the significances of little wars are often the grounds for bigger ones (Jane and Ramesh, 1989). The United States deliberated on placing an attack on Cuba via air and sea. However, they agreed on a military "solitary confinement" of Cuba. The U.S. proclaimed that it would not license aggressive

To What Extent Do Postcolonial Writers Articulate a Coherent a Useful Essay

To What Extent Do Postcolonial Writers Articulate a Coherent a Useful Notion of Home - Essay Example The home in which the natives came from have disappeared. Most of the original literature and the oral culture of the native Caribbean’s were not preserved; hence no cultural mark had been passed over to the following generations. The fact that the African-Caribbean people were enforced to reject their own heritage caused them not to have a traditional culture and an image to identify with. This has caused the natives to constantly adapt to the modern culture, thus not being able to grasp their own in whole. The poem Alpha is divided into three parts, which are ‘Mother Poem’, ‘Sun Poem and X/Self. Smaller divisions of Ancestor comprise of individual poems. The framework in which the poem is structured is in accordance with the context of universality, while being able to form a personal interaction through engaging the readers intimately. The association between the three voices in the Ancestor personifies the father, the mother and the son or the narrator, in relation to their Motherland. The poem captures the essence of familial integration and separation. The first verse is ambiguous. The subject of mother can be referred to as the author's mother whom he misses, or most likely, the author's motherland, as can be seen in the following lines, â€Å"the ancient watercourses of my island/ echo of rver. Trickle. Worn stone/ the sunken voice of glitter iching its pattern to the sea/ memory of foam. Fossil. Erased beaches high above the eaten†.5 The poem started with descriptions of an environment in which the author longs for, as personified in a form of a mother. The author misses his homeland and wishes to go back to his native land to comfort his female parent. The second verse is a description of the Americans or the West Indians. The author hints that his family has migrated to the United States of America, as deduced from the lines "the world Columbus found" and "the world Raleigh raided". 6The statements are symbolized by the following lines in the second part of the poem, â€Å"& my father swims through the noise / Through the blankets of jute on his lungs / & he is Caesar again at the Hellespont†. As for the references to the plantations, the setting in which the author's family migrated to is in New Orleans, it is where most black slaves have migrated to in the previous decades. In a nutshell, the second part is the author's description of his life as his family moved to New Orleans, where sugar plantations are abound. The second part of the poem also implies that the author's parents worked at the plantations in New Orleans. This fact has been deduced from the lines "through the blankets of jute on his lungs" and "maker of chalk dust".7 The line "she waits with her back slowly curving to mountain" represents her mother who have waited in patience and have gotten old, who lived her life in despair from working and waiting for his husband.8 This emotion is evident in the last part of the second division of the poem, â€Å"She waits for his return with her gold rings of love / Wl the miners tr ove that binds her to his world / She waits w/ her back slowly curving to mountain†.9 The last part of the